Abstract
One recurring theme in India’s growth storey over the last two decades has been that the pattern of economic growth is accentuating insecurity. Nonetheless, there is a schism over whether growth gains should be reinvested in achieving universal social security.When it comes to social security, it has linked to job benefits, tying it to one’s status as a worker in the formal or informal economy when, at its core, it is about ensuring that everyone is protected from vulnerability and deprivation. India did not recognise a national minimum social security cover explicitly.
The Government of India has been working to consolidate 44 central labour law legislations into four basic Labour Codes in order to make it easier to do business in India, particularly in terms of labour-related compliances. The Ministry of Labour and Employment introduced one of the Codes, the Code on Social Security, 2020, in the Lok Sabha.Policymakers have managed to catapult the imagination of financial and social security associated with employment to contemporary realities with the passage of the Code on Social Security, 2020. India takes social protection in the twenty-first century to a new level. The goal of the SS Code is to extend social security to all employees and workers in all sectors, whether organised or unorganised.The establishment of a social security fund, or funds, to provide welfare benefits (pension, medical coverage, and health, death, and disability benefits) to all workers, including gig workers, platform workers, and unorganised workers, is a key aspect covered by the Code, and the purpose of this article is to summarise some of the key provisions relating to social security introduced by the Code.
Keywords:Social Security Code, Organised, Unorganised sector.
Introduction
By withdrawing the previous Code of 2019, the Code on Social Security, 2020 has revised and updated the laws pertaining to employee social security, with the intention of extending social security to all employers and staff, whether in the organised, unorganised, or some other area. The Social Security Code, 2020, is an initiative to simplify labour laws related to social security, based on a report of the Second National Commission on Labour (2002). It is a compilation of 9 current laws governing diverse facets of social security, which includes: The Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952, The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948, The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961. The Building and other Construction Workers Cess Act, The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972, The Employees Exchange (Compulsory Notification of Vacancies) Act, 1959, The Cine Workers Welfare Fund Act, 1981, The Unorganized Workers’ Social Security Act, 2008, Employees Compensation Act, 1923.
With the Code on Social Security, 2020, India becomes the 1st country to require social protection for each & every workers, including new-age gig & platform workers. The Code, when combined with the distinction between conventional employees and unorganised sector workers, necessitates the introduction of cutting-edge technologies to ensure social security for everyone. The Code, which affects the lives & livelihoods of over five hundred million workers, proposes the establishment of a centralised fund funded by tech-enabled processes & financed from multiple sources. Workers register with the fund and receive rewards directly from the fund, while the job provider, i.e., the digital platform, acts as a mediator.[1]
The SS Code sets the groundwork for decoupling and universalizing social security from employment. Wages, as well as social security in the form of retirement benefits, health, accident, and life insurance, are provided by the current standard of ‘employment’. This combination of social care and work makes job growth costly and leaves workers vulnerable at periods of widespread job displacement, such as the current pandemic.
Furthermore, the Code establishes that gig & platform workers in India are a step up from unorganised, unlicensed workers who are generally referred to as independent contractors in other countries. They possess freedom, agency, & fixed compensation from employers following completion of service, as well as association incentives such as accident coverage, mutual health insurance, and the ability to collaborate through many platforms.The establishment of a social security fund, or funds, to provide welfare benefits (pension, medical coverage, and health, death, and disabilities benefits) to all workers is a central feature protected by the Code. This paper aims to summarize some of the important provisions relating to social security introduced by the Code.
Research Methodology
The research conducted for this paper in mainly doctrinal in nature. Research paper is partly descriptive, exploratory and analytical. Data has been collected from various secondary sources such as research papers, reports, books, articles, etc. There are also various studies available regarding this subject on the internet which have been referred in this paper.
Research Objectives
- To analyse the scheme given under the code for unorganised workers.
- To examine the shortcomings in the social security provisions.
Research Questions
- What is the duality approach in the administration of Social Security Schemes?
- Whether or not Aadhar registration for workers to get benefits is consonance with the privacy judgement?
Review of Literature
- “Social Security For Workers: Lessons From India In The Great California Experiment” by Aishwarya Raman &Sreelakshmi Ramachandran, 2020:The author describes how India distinguishes between network and gig workers. In addition, the author explains how the lack of this differentiation has resulted in employment reductions in California, Spain, and elsewhere. With new media transforming the very essence of jobs, labour taxonomy has become increasingly important. Determination, versatility, and choice, as well as gigs and platforms, have generated a modern type of job that is distinct from the conventional employer-employee relationship. The author asserts that India describes a gig worker as someone who works outside of the conventional employer-employee relationship, & a web worker as someone who earns a living through the use of digital channels.
- “For Unorganised Workers, New Social Security Code Creates Needless Confusion” by Kingshuk Sarkar, 2020:By pointing out that the laws do not explicitly define the pathway for smooth convergence of current state-run social protection systems with the digital ecosystem conceptualised in the Social Security Code, the author emphasises the immediate need for simplification and avoidance of multiple authorities. Briefly, the author examines the duality of the way in which social insurance for the unorganised sector is administered, as well as a degree of inconsistency in the meanings of the unorganised sector.
- “India’s New Social Security Code Is Progressive, But Definition Loopholes May Deprive 4.2 Cr Home-Based Workers Of Benefits” by Sonakshi Agarwal, 2020: The author discusses the effect of social security code loopholes on home-based jobs in India, which is a significant source of employment for working women, accounting for 16 % for women and 9% for men.
Chapter 1- Social Security For Unorganized Workers
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the SS Code is that it applies social security benefits to groups of employees who have previously been excluded from employment benefits because they worked beyond the context of conventional employer-employee partnerships, such as India’s freelance workforce or the informal market. While the Government now has the right to implement social security schemes under the SS Code for gig and network employees, the Central Government must enact such social security and welfare schemes for other unorganised workers such as home-based workers & self-employed workers.
The provisions relating to social security in Chapter IX of the SS Code are applicable to the unorganised sector i.e., to unorganised workers, gig & platform workers. Further, every unorganised worker, gig & platform worker has to be registered as per the provisions of the SS Code and is required to submit his/her Aadhar card to avail the benefit of any schemes under the SS Code.
- Benefits
Gig & platform workers schemes The SS Code authorises the Central Government to provide schemes for gig & platform workers on matters concerning (a) life & disability insurance, (b) accident insurance (c) health & maternity aids, (d) old age care, (e) crèche, & (f) other Central Government defined benefits.
This is a novel move and expands the coverage of social security benefits to erstwhile unprotected categories of workers not being employees.The SS Code also specifies that, in addition to unorganised workers, the National Social Security Board will serve as a board for the protection of gig workers, platform workers, & unorganised workers, making recommendations on scheme formulation, monitoring schemes, and advising the centre on concerns arising from the code’s administration. It would examine state-level record-keeping as well as fund and account expenditures. The chairperson and vice-chairperson will be the minister of labour and the secretary of labour[2].
The Gig and Platform Workers’ Social Security Fund is envisioned in the SS Code as a way to offer social security and health services to gig & platform workers[3].The Central Government will establish and manage the Gig and Platform Workers’ Fund, which will be financed by a combination of contributions from the Central Government, State Governments, and scheduled aggregators as specified by the SS Code. The State Government’s scheme can be financed by the State Government, beneficiary donations, and corporate social responsibility funds established under the Companies Act of 2013. Scheduled aggregators include companies that provide ride-sharing systems, food & retail distribution services, content and media providers, & e-marketplaces, among other things.
The Code also establishes rules for aggregators that employ gig workers. As a result, aggregators who treat gig and platform workers as “independent contractors” who do not offer social security benefits to them will now be obliged to do so, regardless of the salaries paid to those workers.Any gig worker & platform worker must register for anexclusive number “in such form along with such documentation like Aadhaar number as may be prescribed by the Central Government” to receive benefits under the Code. This comes with the requirement that gig & platform staff requesting registration be at least sixteen years old and send a self-declaration “containing such information as the Central Government can recommend.”[4]
The Code authorises the “appropriate Government” to provide a toll-free contact centre/helpline to provide information on social security programmes for unorganisedemployees, gig workers, & network workers. The centre will correspondingly assist with the registration of gig & network staff, as well as their enrolment in social security programmes.[5]
- Scheme of Unorganized Workers
The Central & State Governments are required by the Code to provide social security schemes for:
- Self-employed workers: who are not employed by an employer but work in the unorganised sector for a monthly wage or own cultivable land.
- Home-based workers: that deliver services from their homes or other locations other than their employers’ workplaces.
- Gig workers: Freelancers, for example, are not part of the conventional employer-employee arrangement.
- Platform workers: who use online sites to gain access to other organisations/ individuals and earn money by supplying them with specific services.
- Wage workers:Temporary or seasonal employees, migrant workers, or workers hired by families, including domestic workers, are among those working in the unorganised market, either straight by an employer/ by any contractor.[6]
Gig & platform workers schemes the SS Code authorises the Central Government to provide schemes for gig & platform workers on matters concerning (a) life & disability insurance, (b) accident insurance (c) health & maternity aids, (d) old age care, (e) crèche, & (f) other Central Government defined benefits. These schemes can be partially financed by the central government, state governments, beneficiaries & employers’ contributions, and corporate social responsibility funds established under the Companies Act of 2013.[7]
The State Government has the responsibility to formulate suitable welfare schemes for unorganised workers, for “(i) provident fund, (ii) employment injury benefit, (iii) housing, (iv) educational schemes for children, (v) skill upgradation schemes for workers, (vi) funeral assistance, and (vii) old age homes.” The State Government, as well as contributions from beneficiaries & corporate social responsibility funds established under the Companies Act of 2013, may finance these State Government schemes[8].
Chapter 2– Analysis of the Social Security Provisions
2.1 Administration of Social Security Scheme using a dualistic approach
The Centre is due to draft social security programmes for unorganised employees under the Code on Social Security 2020 and the Draft Rules framed thereunder. Before now, state governments were in charge of developing and implementing social security plans for jobs in the unorganised market. Now,the Central government has also taken up this responsibility under the current Social Security Code.
As discussed in above chapter about the welfare schemes for certain matters it can be concluded that both the government can now draft the schemes for workers who work under unroganised sector. As a result, from the viewpoint of an individual unorganised sector worker, there will be a dual authority. Furthermore, any eligible unorganised worker must register with Aadhaar on a self-declaration basis in the form on the portal, as stated by the Central government, under Rule 50 (a).Gig and platform workers are also covered by similar provisions & arrangements.
Furthermore, in the case of construction workers who are primarily unorganised, it is the duty of the relevant state government to register them. The state government & the state building workers’ welfare board are required by Section 106 (1) to register all such workers employed as building or other construction workers within the state’s geographical area on the prescribed portal of the Central government and the state government or board via Aadhaar.
The whole process for implementing schemes for construction workers has changed, which has resulted in a significant transition. Building and unorganised employees must now file as beneficiaries through a portal established by the central government rather than by state regulations. This would have a major effect on the whole mechanism as well as many current practises. There will be major modifications that would need to be managed in order to conform with the Code’s requirements. As a result of the above considerations, it is clear that the Code and Rules include provisions for the establishment of social security boards at both the central & state levels. This would add yet another layer of complexity to the equation.
- Overlapping of Definition
The 2020 Code defines the terms “gig worker”&“platform worker”. Workers who don’t have a “traditional employer-employee contract” are referred to as gig workers. Platform workers are people who work outside of the conventional employer-employee arrangement to provide services for money to organisations or individuals through an online platform.
The Code also has provisions for workers that are not organised. Unorganised workers are those who work in the unorganised sector & are not bound by the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, or the Bill’s other provisions. Self-employed people are included as well. For any of these groups of workers, the Code mandates a separate scheme. There could, however, be some overlap in their meanings.
Take the case of a cab driver who works for an app-based taxi aggregator. There is no employer-employee arrangement in this situation. For example, there are no appointment letters, no social security benefits, no employer-mandated operating hours, & the driver can choose to work for a rival taxi aggregator. As a result, the essence of his job may fall outside of the scope of a “traditional employer-employee relationship”, making him a “gig worker”. The driver, on the other hand, can only apply for this job via an online website. This will also suit the concept of a “platform worker”. Since he is self-employed, such a driver can also be considered an“unorganised person.” This will also suit the concept of a “platform worker”. Since, he is self-employed, such a driver can also be considered an“unorganised person.” With so much variation in meanings, it’s unclear if schemes tailored to these jobs would work.
The social security system for gig workers, platform workers, and unorganised workers has become too complicated and cluttered with the new Code. There are two authorities & zones that intersect. Provisions in the Draft Rules highlight these inconsistencies even further. There is a pressing requirement for situations to be simplified and for various agencies to be avoided.
Chapter 3- Shortcoming in the Social Security Provisions and the Draft Rules.
Following the Code on Social Security, 2020, the Draft Code on Social Security Rules 2020 makes Aadhaar-based registration a requirement for obtaining benefits. This could go against Apex Court ruling that said Aadhaar connection could only be needed if the service or reward was rendered at the expense of India Consolidated Fund. A report from the Standing Committee on the Code of SS has previously directed the Ministry of Labour to align the Code’s rules with the decision of Apex Court’s. Present critiques of Aadhaar-based identification for welfare distribution schemes have also gone unanswered.Finally, databases holding employee information must be adequately secured.
3.1 Aadhar Registration not in Consonance with the Privacy Judgement
In the case of K. S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) and Anr. vs Union of India and Ors[9], the apex court, uphold the constitutionality of Aadhar, declared the Right to Privacy &Aadhaar may only be lawfully related for expenditure on a subsidy, revenue/ service expended from the Consolidated Fund of India. Applying this principle, the Court has struck down the mandatory linking of bank accounts with Aadhaar.
The Act requires an employee/worker (includes an unorganised worker) to give his Aadhaar digits in order to get social security benefits such as insurance, PF, contributions, &gratuity, as well as to receive services from a career centre. However, mandating Aadhaar for the receipt of these benefits may be in violation of the judgement. Since such entitlements, such as gratuity &PF, are funded by employers and employees rather than India’s Consolidated Fund, making Aadhaar compulsory for receiving certain benefits could be in violation of the ruling.
In 2015, the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) made the linking of Aadhaar with Provident Fund accounts obligatory. Following the ruling, the Employees’ Provident Fund Organization issued an order exempting employees who hadn’t done Aadhar-based registration from penalties. Furthermore, the reason for including Aadhaar linkage in order to use career centre facilities is vague.
Furthermore, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Labour has raised this issue in its report on the Code on Social Security, 2019, noting that the budgetary outlay from India’s consolidated fund is not explicitly set aside. In light of the Court’s Ruling, the Committee urged the Ministry to rethink mandating compulsory Aadhaar linking, pointing out that Aadhaar should only be needed for benefits offered by the India’s Consolidated Fund.
3.2 Data Basing of Workers
Employers should use databases like the Shram Suvidha portal to help them comply with labour laws. The use of the Shram Suvidha portal (or other portalsas provided) for registering workers as beneficiaries is included in the Draft Rules. While a database like this will help with enforcement and enable the government to track how labour laws are being implemented, safeguards must be taken to ensure that worker data is safe, particularly because registration can require personal information. Employers can also use this information to track their workers.Given the lack of comprehensive data protection legislation, such as the Personal Data Protection Bill, 2020/the Personal Data and Information Privacy Code, 2020, recommendation is given that a provision be included requires that all public & private compliance portals &databases of employees must take adequate measures, as provided by the relevant authority.
3.3 Present scenario of verification of Aadhar
Since the Aadhaar-based authentication scheme has already been criticised in other ways, it may pose a potential barrier to obtaining social security benefits. The verification scheme is plagued with technological failures, which have also resulted in significant problems with welfare benefits exclusion. According to the CEO of UIDAI, authentication loss for government services was as high as twelve percent in 2018. Additionally, only 60% of the cumulative allotted grains each month is spread on the basis of biometric authentication of Aadhaar as of March 3rd, 2020.
In different cases, the effectiveness of Aadhaar-based registration for schemes has been examined.According to a study conducted in Jharkhand, Aadhaar-based authentication, “either did not reduce errors of inclusion or leakage or did so at the cost of increased exclusion error.”[10]One more study showed that the Aadhaar-based authentication framework in PDS shops, “rife with technical issues such as incomplete seeding of cardholder information, biometric failure and administrative gaps such as inadequate failure reporting and back-up systems.”[11]
Finally, a study that looked at Aadhaar-based authentication in a variety of settings, including PDS delivery, NREGA jobs, LPG subsidies, midday meals, & the National Social Assistance Program, discovered that “Available evidence does not substantiate any significant gains from Aadhaar-integration in welfare programmes. On the contrary, it has inflicted considerable pain. Apart from (supposedly) one-time costs of enrolment and Aadhaar-seeding, people are now faced with higher transaction costs on a monthly basis (in pensions and the PDS for instance), and in a significant minority of cases, also face exclusion and denial. Even when it works, people suffer from considerable indignities.”[12]
In light of the Supreme Court’s decision as well as the negative externalities of using Aadhaar-based authentication, the author advises that Aadhaar linking for the acceptance of social security benefits not be mandated. Instead, employees could be given a social security card to aid in identification & service delivery. Moreover, Aadhaar authentication should be rendered genuinely consensual, &multiple government IDs should be required for verification.
Chapter 4- Recommendations
Scope of representation of workers in social security organisations in the Code is also dismal. The lack of a clearly spelt out role for trade unions and workers’ associations is also a major flaw, as workers’ organisations must have effective representation concerning social security schemes intended for their benefit. No specific provisions are given for representation of different sectors of unorganised workers, platform workers and gig workers. A transparent process should be prescribed for the government’s nomination of platform workers’ representatives, with effective representation from trade unions & workers’ organisations.
Board must be formed within 6 months in consultation with civil society: The Draft Rules envision the formation of a National Social Security Board for Gig Workers & Platform Workers, but there is no timeline by which it needs to be formed, and no transparency around the procedure that the central government will follow to nominate platform workers’ representatives to the board. The author suggests that there should be clarity on the constitution of the National Social Security Board for Gig Workers & Platform Workers. The author further suggests that the central government form the board within six months of the Draft Rules being notified. It must nominate five members representing workers in consultation with existing unions and associations of gig workers & platform workers, as well as civil society. The same stakeholders should also be consulted to decide the process and operational details of the nominees.
Changes around registration: helplines, wrongful deletion, charges: For registration of workers, which is mandatory to avail benefits, the central government should provide support by establishing facilitation centres and toll-free helplines, a requirement laid down in the Code itself. The author suggests that the government must bear the ‘responsibility of registering workers, updating their particulars and enrolling them in schemes.’ These governments must also provide a mechanism for grievance redressal for possible deletion of eligible beneficiaries as a result of Aadhaar-based deduplication exercise laid down in the Draft Rules. There should be provisions to address wrongful deletion, and to correct and update personal data.
Gig workers and platform workers should not have to bear charges to register themselves. Workers cannot be made to bear the cost of registration or updation on the platform, which would render them more economically vulnerable. Instead, registration should be free of charge for the workers, and the cost must be borne by the aggregators or by the government.
Data privacy and protection of workers: The Draft Rules require the aggregators to share periodic details of their gig workers & platform workers (for registration purposes) and also require workers to carry out Aadhaar authentication. Highlighting the fundamental right to privacy, the author recommends that the Rules lay down collection and purpose limitation practices around the information of the workers, among other things. The amount of workers’ information collected by the central government should be limited to “what may be reasonably required for welfare and social security purposes.” Further, the information should be used only for workers’ registration, help them access social protection, and disburse benefits. Additionally, gig workers and platform workers should have the right to be informed about any personal data shared by the aggregators and the right to access such data on request. Further, the details collected by the government should be subject to the provisions of the Personal Data Protection Bill, 2019.
Upper age limit of 60 years should be removed: The Draft Rules lays down gig workers & platform workers aged between 16 years and 60 years as eligible for benefits. However, the author suggests removing the upper limit of 60 years since there is ‘no formal age of retirement’ in the platform economy and people “may turn to gig work or platform work post-retirement employment opportunities.” Further, people beyond the age of 60 years may continue to work out of economic necessity, and should not be excluded from the protections. Further, since the Draft Rules empower the government to add further eligibility criteria as it sees fit, the author suggests that this should be done away with, in line with International Labour Organisations’ calls for universal social protections in the future of work.
Disclosure of aggregators’ contributions, and an agency for collection: While the Draft Rules indicate that aggregators will have to contribute towards a government-framed social security scheme, further clarity should be provided on how these contributions will be assessed and what extent of social protection will be given in case platform workers are associated with several aggregators simultaneously. Aggregators must make the assessment of their contributions (to the social security schemes) available to both the workers as well as the public.
The Draft Rules currently required the central government to appoint an officer or an agency as the authority responsible to collect and expend contributions from aggregators. The author recommends that an agency be formed, and that it consists of representatives from the government, workers, and aggregators. The ministry should spell out the conditions under which aggregators can be exempted from contributing to platform workers’ social security.
Central database: The Draft Rules lay down the creation of a central database with data of the workers, pulled via self-registration as well as through aggregators, with the stated purpose of being able to dispense the benefits. The submission urges the government to rethink the vision of the database itself, and explore ‘the possibility of a federated architecture,’ that brings in workers themselves, with space for democratic & decentralised data management by workers themselves through a democratic & decentralised data management process, with involvement from state & local government agencies.
Chapter 5- Conclusion
The Social Security Code of 2020 is written in such a way that it covers the greatest number of working people in the world. Its acceptance of non-traditional ways of work outside of the traditional employer-employee relationship is promising, given the global trend toward self-employment, gig work, & platform work. As a result, encouraging the Central Government to not only offer social security opportunities through framing schemes, but also to maintain reliable accounts of those jobs through the self-declaration process ensures a better picture of our labour resource composition.
The flexibility provided to the Central Government with regard to contribution rates under Chapter-III for EPF and Chapter-IV for ESIC would enable rates to be adjusted in response to changing economic circumstances, reducing the burden on workers & employers identical. Every contributory national social care plan must strike a balance in ensuring that the working community has more purchasing capacity. This must be achieved by having enough in the form of donations to cover those who are leaving the workforce while still saving adequate for those who are already working.
It remains to be seen if the new Social Security Code, 2020, will strike this delicate balance. However, since it includes a significant majority of our working community, it is obviously a step in the correct direction in terms of simplicity of compliance & universality. Perhaps more should be done to help our workers transition from casual to traditional ways of operation, and it’s likely that the Rules can do so, either consciously or indirectly, as a result of their net impact.
Although there is reason to be optimistic, caution must be exercised because there are so several facets of delegated policy and executive rulemaking to be addressed. Only after these flaws are ironed out and the Code is implemented may we make a definitive assessment of its effectiveness and usefulness.
Bibliography
Acts and Statutes
- The Code on Social Security (2020).
- The Draft Code on Social Security (Central) Rules (2020).
- Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952 (No. 102).
Case Laws
- S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) and Anr. vs Union of India and Ors., Writ Petition (Civil) No. 494 (2012).
Online Sources
- Aishwarya Raman &Sreelakshmi Ramachandran, Social Security For Workers: Lessons From India In The Great California Experiment, Financial Express (December 14, 2020), https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/social-security-for-workers-lessons-from- india-in-the-great-california-experiment/2149260/.
- Trisha Jalan, Trade Unions, Civil Society Suggest Changes To Govt On Draft Rules For Gig Workers’ Social Security, Medianama (January 6, 2021), https://www.medianama.com/2020/09/223-code-on-social-security-gig-platform.
- Kingshuk Sarkar, For Unorganised Workers, New Social Security Code Creates Needless Confusion, The Wire (December 29, 2020), https://thewire.in/labour/social-security-code-unorganised-workers.
- Internet Freedom Foundation, Comments On The Draft Social Security Rules To Safeguard Worker’s Rights (December 8,2020), https://internetfreedom.in/worker-surveillance-through-labour-reforms/.
- Karthik Muralidharan et. al., Identity Verification Standards in Welfare Programs: Experimental Evidence from India, National Bureau of Economic Research (February, 2020).
- ReetikaKhera, Impact of Aadhaar on welfare Programmes, Economic & Political Weekly (December 14, 2017), https://www.epw.in/journal/2017/50/special-articles/impact-aadhaar-welfare-programmes.htm.
[1] Aishwarya Raman &Sreelakshmi Ramachandran, Social Security For Workers: Lessons From India In The Great California Experiment, Financial Express (December 14, 2020), https://www.financialexpress.com/ opinion/ social-security-for-workers-lessons-from-india-in-the-greatcalifornia-experiment/2149260/.
[2] Trisha Jalan, Trade Unions, Civil Society Suggest Changes To Govt On Draft Rules For Gig Workers’ Social Security, Medianama (January 6, 2021), https://www.medianama.com/2020/09/223-code-on-social-security-gigplatform-workers/.
[3] The Code on Social Security2020, §141.
[4] The Code on Social Security 2020, §113.
[5] The Code on Social Security 2020, §112.
[6] The Code on Social Security 2020, §114.
[7] The Code on Social Security 2020, §109.
[8] Ibid.
[9]K. S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) and Anr. vs Union of India and Ors, Writ Petition (Civil) No. 494 (2012).
[10] Karthik Muralidharan et. al., “Identity Verification Standards in Welfare Programs: Experimental Evidence from India, National Bureau of Economic Research.”
[11]Sneha Menon, “Aadhaar-based Biometric Authentication for PDS and Food Security: Observations on Implementation in Jharkhand’s Ranchi District, SAGE Journals.”
[12]ReetikaKhera, Impact of Aadhaar on welfare Programmes, Economic & Political Weekly (December 14, 2017).
