Abstract
With the development of urban areas in the country, a large number of rural citizens have resorted to migrating into these regions. This migration however, coupled with the increasing population has caused a strain on the natural resources of the country. This tremendous growth in the population over the past few years has resulted in a situation where the limited resources of the country are being over-exploited. Rapid urbanization has therefore emerged as one of the leading barriers with respect to achieving the goal of sustainable development. The goal which aims at ensuring that the process of development goes hand in hand with environmental sustenance is drastically affected due to the excessive consumption of resources. This in turn affects both the needs of the present generation as well as the future generations. This paper attempts to understand the problem of urbanization that is currently prevalent in society and how this increase in population over the past few years has a negative affect on the goal of sustainable development. The paper also seeks to analyse three different problems that arise out of urbanization which hampers the goal of sustainable development. These problems include the exhaustibility of natural resources, the inefficient allocation of natural resources as well as the faulty governmental policies and schemes that are implemented in order to tackle the problem of urbanization. The paper also provides for solutions that requires proactive steps to be taken by the government as well as by the citizens so as to nullify the dangers of urbanization.
Key words: Urbanization, Sustainable, Development, Exploitation, Resources, Policies.
- Introduction
The fundamental issue faced in the modern world is the lack of available resources to meet the demands of the people. With the growing needs of society and the limited resources that are available, people are resorting to the practice of over-exploiting the resources. The long-term drastic effects of such constant exploitation were recognized by various countries and eventually, the idea of sustainable development was brought up in the 1970’s. The idea of sustainable development gained more traction in the year of 1972 during the Stockholm Declaration on Human Environment which was the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment[1]. However, at the time, the term sustainable development was not defined and it only came into common use after it was defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development which is also known as the Brundtland Commission in its 1987 report, ‘Our Common’. The Commission defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs”[2]. The said definition not only covers present generation requirements but also looks into protecting sufficient quantity of resources for the future generations. The aim is to avoid over exploitation of resources by utilizing the same efficiently. The Brundtland Report paved the way for further international efforts towards achieving the idea of sustainable development. The World Summit on Environment and Development held at Rio De Janeiro in the year 1992 which is popularly known as Earth Summit was guided and inspired by the Brundtland Report[3]. Post the Brundtland Report, an international effort was initiated through Agenda 21 which was a programme of action under the Earth Summit, which looked to go beyond just the idea of ecological sustainability by inculcating other aspects of sustainable development such as economic growth, equity and promotion of people’s participation. Sustainable development has become one of the key priority areas in the International scenario and India being party to treaties promoting the same is obligated towards working towards the goal. The most recently introduced well known initiative with respect to sustainable development is the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development[4]. The same was adopted in the year of 2015 by all the member states of the United Nations. This agenda for sustainable development consists of a total of seventeen goals known as the Sustainable development goals (SDG’s), all of which seek to balance the twin ideologies of development and environmental sustenance. These goals that have been accepted by all the member states, both developed and developing are done with an understanding that there exists an urgent need for action and international co-operation between nations.
Moving to the concept of urbanization, it is of key importance to note that there is no universally set definition of the same. Urbanization has been defined taking into consideration different aspects in different countries. The general idea however refers to the process in which a large number of individuals move to and settle in urban areas[5]. In India, urbanization is caused mainly due to rural push rather than urban pull[6]. This is to say that the process of urbanization is mainly caused due to the migration of the rural population into urban areas. This migration from the rural areas into the urban areas takes place for several reasons. Some of the rural citizens move towards the urban areas with a hope to attain employment opportunities, however the same is not feasible due to the high population already existing in the urban areas as well the lack of provisions with respect to creation of employment opportunities in development plans[7]. Other rural citizens choose to move into urban areas due to the simple fact that the standard of living in the urban areas is much better than that of the rural areas. The investment that goes into the urban areas is significantly higher when compared to the rural areas, thereby incentivizing rural citizens to migrate to urban areas. The availability of resources and other such facilities in the urban regions attract rural citizen thereby influencing their decisions to migrate. The process of urbanization irrespective of where it takes place, is always accompanied by an increase in the consumption as well as a degradation in the quality of the surrounding environment[8]. This movement of individuals into populated cities results in a strain on resources as the demand in cities increase with an increase in population. This increase in demand creates a problem that is twofold, first being the fact that there is over-exploitation of resources to meet the needs of individuals. Second being that due to the limited amount of available resources, the lower sections of society very often suffer. India being a developing country with a vast population, the threats of urbanization is very high. The population of India has been increasing at such a tremendous rate over the years that it would not be possible to sustain itself in the long run.
- Urbanization in India
According to the 2011 Census that was conducted in India, the population of India was 1,210,854,977 i.e., (1210 Million). The total geographic area that is covered by India is only 2.4% of the entire world area but however, India accounts for about 17.5% of the worlds population which is significantly higher than the other nations of similar surface area dimensions[9]. With this vast population which keeps growing at a rapid pace and the nations limited resources, it is simply not practical to be able to provide for the needs of all. The situation that has been created due to this paucity of resources to meet the requirements of all has in turn led to the over-exploitation of the existing resources. Over-exploitation however is not the only problem arising out of the current situation. The problem of urbanization has also resulted in faulty decision making and lack of implementation on the part of the government which in turn affects the objective of achieving sustainable development. The reasonsfor the currently existing situation in India can be summarized by looking into three aspects. The first aspect being that since resources in general are depletable, there shall not be enough left for future generations[10]. Due to this over-exploitation, the States duty to strive towards sustainable development is being affected. The second aspect being that certain policies and schemes executed by the government towards tackling the problem of urbanization are either ineffective or have not been implemented properly. The short comings of these policies and schemes in fact result in rapid urbanization which then hampers the goal of sustainable development. The third aspect being that the government in order to meet the increasing demands for resources, indulges in the practice of inefficient allocation of resources by authorizing certain players in the market. Thereby creating a monopoly over resources. This power over resources by a handful of people yet again is another barrier towards the goal of sustainable development as there is no equal distribution of resources or their benefits among all. As discussed earlier, a significant part of the urban population in India comprises of rural migrants. While these individuals are the ones who are most in need of resources, the players having monopoly over resources mostly cater for the richer sections of society. These three problems shall be discussed in more detail.
- Exploitation of Resources
A country is highly dependant on its natural resources in order for its development and prosperity. Resources, therefore, play a key role in the growth of an economy but they too have certain drawbacks. Most of the available natural resources are in fact non-renewable or depletable. In the field of economics, it is well established that while the wants of individuals are unlimited, the resources available to satisfy these wants are only limited. This therefore results in a central issue regarding how these resources are to be used and whether or not they should be exploited[11]. As explained earlier while defining sustainable development, the needs of both present as well as future generations are to be taken into consideration. With the limited resources that a country possesses, the resources that are available must be used in a judicious manner by the present generation for the purpose of benefiting future generations. Natural resources are construed to be ‘commons’ in the sense that they belong to all in the community and at the same time, they belong to no single individual. These resources being common must be exploited by the present generation in such a manner that they also take into consideration the needs and rights of the future generations[12]. As previously stated, the common resources are considered as the property of the community as a whole. Since these commons belong to all, each individual has the following obligations to the other members of society. The first obligation of the individual is to ensure that they use resources only to the extent of their requirements. The second obligation of the individual is to ensure that after they procure the resources, they ensure that they leave behind enough resources for the rest of the community. However, with respect to urbanization in India, the considerable increase in urban population not only makes it hard to provide for the needs of future generations but also the present generations. A large number of migrants who enter urban cities will have a demand for basic resources such as energy, food and so on. The demand that has been created from the urbanization exceeds the ability and resources required to fulfil the same. This then results in a situation where resources which would otherwise be conserved for future use shall be exploited. This over-exploitation of resources thereby affects the goals of sustainable development in two ways. The first being that in a market where resources are limited, access to the same is given to only those who have a purchasing power to afford these resources. As a result of which the necessities of certain individuals earning a comparitively lower income tend to suffer. The second being that over-exploitation by the present generation will directly result in the future generations having a shortage of resources. The increase in demand by the population is however not the only way in which urbanization affects the goal of sustainable development. It is also key to note that with an increase in population, more land is required to provide housing to the people. As a result of this, very often forests and grasslands are cut down and converted into areas for human habitation. This in turn leads to depletion of resources that could be acquired from such regions[13].
- Faulty Governmental Policies & Schemes
The problem of rapid urbanization over the past few years has become an immense complication for the government as they are held accountable to the people who have elected them. With an increase in the urban population and the rising demands, the citizens depend upon the government to fulfil their needs. Rapid urbanization brings along with it, problems such as lack of available housing, unemployment and over-exploitation of resources. In order to tackle these problems, the government introduces new legislations and policies which aim to benefit society. This same legislative power is given to the Government under Article 245 of the Indian Constitution which allows the Parliament to make laws for the entire nation and the State Legislature to make laws for within the boundary of its particular state[14]. While Article 245 provides for the extent of legislative powers, Article 246 provides the subject matters with respect to which the competent government may legislate[15]. In order to increase the efficiency of such legislations, the 74th Amendment to the Constitution was introduced which provided more power to the urban local bodies to carry out its functions at the ground level[16]. Using these provisions as laid down in our Constitution, the government is expected to implement measures and safeguards required to protect the interests of society. The reality however is that due to lack of planning as well as high levels of corruption, these legislations and policies are very often ineffective. In some situations, the policies promote rapid urbanization rather than curtail it. We may take for example the introduction of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA)in the year 2009 by the governmentwhich promises 100 days of employment to adults living in rural areas[17]. The idea behind the scheme was to provide employment opportunities in the rural areas so that individuals are not forced to migrate to urban cities in order to seek employment. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme seeks to provide employment to those individuals in rural households who volunteer to carry out tasks that require unskilled manual labour. This scheme though conceptually sound, suffers from a variety of drawbacks. Under the said scheme, there exists a number of administration costs that are required to be met prior to the implementation of the scheme. These costs are to be borne by the State government through their funds. The poorer states in the country are unable to implement this scheme in the rural areas due to the lack of financial feasibility. Apart from this, the requirement on the workers to do difficult manual labour at low wages dis-incentivized individuals from taking part in the scheme[18]. The high levels of corruption amongst the local hiring officials also disincentivizes individuals to participate in the scheme. As a result of these drawbacks, the rural worker is left with no choice other than to migrate to the urban cities in search of employment. As seen from the example, the failure of the government to take into consideration all such contingencies while implementing new policies and schemes result in the non-fulfilment of the original intended goal. Even the governments policy of investing a greater amount into the urban cities leads to an increase in urban population. Promotion of industry and commerce in urban cities shall only persuade more individuals to move into these cities in search of opportunities. These biased decision making and non adherent program implementations results in a rapid inflow of people into urban cities. This inflow shall lead to an increase in demand which in turn will lead to inefficient use of resources.
- Inefficient Resource Allocation
The word socialist was added to the Constitution of India during the period of Emergency in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment[19]. This word was included in the Preamble of the Constitution to indicate that India shall be a nation that provides for both social and economical equality. The goal was to provide each citizen with equal opportunities and ensure that there was a uniform distribution of wealth amongst all individuals. Nevertheless, India being a truly socialistic nation is a myth and in fact, it may be said that we are a pseudo socialistic nation. Even though the concept of equal distribution of wealth and equal opportunities to all is propagated in the Constitution itself, the reality is that there exists an imbalance in society between the privilegedand the under privileged. While one segment of society has access to resources above and beyond what they truly require, another segment struggles on a daily basis to acquire basic resources needed for their daily livelihood. This imbalance that exists in society is largely due to the fact of unequal purchasing power between the high-income groups and the low-income groups. The individuals with a high purchasing power have an advantage over those individuals in the low-income group as they are able to procure the resources merely due to the fact that in an economy with limited resources. The resources subsequently end up with those who are willing to pay more. When demand for resources or goods arise in the market, the government has a duty to supply resources to meet these needs. The needs of the people are either met by the government itself or in some cases, they are met by producers in the market. The problem that arises here is the fact that the government in some cases provide certain well-established producers excessive control over resources, thereby limiting the access to these resources uniformly to all members of society. Having control over these resources, these producers may regulate supply and prices and even over-exploit the resources. Several of these producers may be considered as lobbyists as they influence governmental policies to benefit themselves. In order to understand how they affect the goal of sustainable development, we must understand the role that these individuals play. The increased demand that is resulted due to urbanization needs to be met by the government so as to satisfy the needs of the people. However, it is not possible for the government to meet these needs by itself as India being a mixed economy, which works on a system of State as a whole as well as private enterprises individually. Since producers in the market play a key role in meeting this demand, they possess an upper hand over the government in some cases and the well-established producers are even able to hinder or manipulate the governmental policies. This leverage that certain big producers have results in the inefficient allocation of resources. Having a control over the resources, these producers are free to dispose of them in any way they desire. The problem arising out of this with regard to sustainable development is two-fold. On the one hand, the producers may withhold supply so as to increase the prices. This would then lead to a situation where the poorer sections of society are unable to afford what is produced and are denied these basic resources. By allowing this control over resources, the needs of certain sections of the present generation are not being met. On the other hand, the producers may resort to over-exploitation so as to increase revenue by increasing supply. This would then result in a situation where due to the over-exploitation, there are not enough resources available for the future generations. In both cases, the goal of sustainable development is affected as needs for either the present or future generations are not being met. Since certain producers also have an influence over the government, the idea of regulation over use of resources is out of the question. This control that is held by producers originally arose to combat the difficulties of urbanization but has however resulted in a situation where it poses a threat to the sustainable development of the country. Apart from the inefficient allocation of control of resources, the inefficient allocation with regard to investment as well poses a problem to sustainable development. Resources are generally invested by producers in areas or regions where there is a higher rate of return for them[20]. Most of the investments in the rural areas have very low returns and therefore, producers are more comfortable in investing in urban regions. The problem that arises here is that in the hope of earning excess profits, excess resources are being used in already developed regions. This causes two problems, one being the problem of wastage of resources as they are being invested inefficiently as these investments are in excess where they are not required. The second being that there is a lower amount of investment of resources in rural areas. This lack of investment not only results in rural citizens having no access to resources, but it also induces rural migration into urban areas. The inefficiency in the allocation of resources whether with respect to control or investment, results in a situation where the goal of sustainability is drastically affected.
- The Way Forward
The problem of rapid population growth that is currently prevailing in society is one of the major environmental concerns that exists at the moment. The same however is not being treated as an issue of great environmental concern by the leaders of the country. With this tremendous growth in population over the past decade, which is continuing to rise in both developed and developing countries, we are on the course towards a crisis in our ecological balance. It is of key importance to immediately realize the problem at hand and take measures to tackle the same. Sustainable development is mainly affected by two factors, namely industrialization as well as population[21]. Since India is not an industrialized nation, the population factor is of greater prevalence in the current scenario. With a population such as ours which keeps increasing by the day, there is an immense pressure over resources of the country thereby leading to the gradual exhaustion of the same. The need of the hour is to take proactive steps to combat and overcome the problem of urbanization.
The first measure that needs to be taken is to prevent the rapid inflow of people into urban cities. The migration from rural to urban areas are mostly caused due to the need for employment opportunities and better standard of living. What is required at the moment is enforcement of effective policies and new legislations by the government to help achieve the goal of sustainable development. The government must strive towards enforcing a system of law and policy which is based on equity and fairness[22]. A greater amount of focus and investment needs to be put into the rural areas so as to provide rural citizens an incentive to stay back in those areas. The initiatives to improve quality of life and opportunities in rural areas have a two-fold benefit. On the one hand, there shall be a reduction in the migration of individuals to the urban areas. At the same time, due to the increase of investment in the rural areas, the standard of livingin such regions shall be uplifted in par with that of urban areas. This development of rural areas shall in turn have a positive benefit on the nation as a whole. However, due to the already existing large population in urban areas, the mere restriction of inflow of people into urban cities shall not suffice in achieving sustainable development. Efficient measures need to be taken so as to cater to the needs of the already existing populations in the urban areas.
Considering this large population in urban cities, the need for urban development is inevitable. A sound system of urban development planning shall result in a situation where the needs of individuals in the urban localities are met. In order to ensure that these urban development schemes do not hamper the long-term goals of the nation, the government must ensure that these urban development schemes go hand in hand with sustainable development schemes[23]. In order to ensure the same, the urban development schemes must be prepared keeping in mind the importance of environmental protection and sustenance. Some regions in the country are already well developed in terms of infrastructure. Such regions require less development and investment and the same can be put to better use in regions such as rural areas that lack this infrastructure. The over-development of already developed regions puts a strain on the natural resources of the region. The policies of the government should be formulated according to the needs of the respective regions. Following such a method of policy making on the part of the government, is both financially as well as environmentally responsible[24]. Therefore, the legislative competence of the government is of great importance as it must ensure that both short term as well as long term goals are achieved.
As mentioned above, the policies and legislations that are implemented by the government must provide for both equity and fairness. The resources in our nation must be made available to all and equally distributed. The government being the trustee of these common resources has the duty to ensure that individuals are not given private ownership or monopoly over these resources. Striving towards sustainable development however is not only the duty of the government. It must be kept in mind that sustainable development is majorly affected due to excessive use and over-exploitation of resources by the public. Individual citizens themselves have a duty towards ensuring that they judiciously use the resources in such a manner that there is enough remaining for the future generations. Apart from this, individual citizens must also participate in community-based efforts and protests which seek to highlight the importance of striving towards sustainable development. Individuals may also file Public Interest Litigations (PIL) against those who are misusing or over-exploiting the common resources[25]. Achieving the goal of sustainable development being a herculean task requires co-operation between the government as well as the citizens. This co-operation between the two coupled with proactive measures taken by each shall result in a situation where both current and future generations are benefited.
- Conclusion
Natural resources are of such importance that an individuals’ existence depends upon the access to such resources. The Right to Life that is enshrined in the Indian Constitution[26] also includes an individuals’ right to access to basic resources. It is a fundamental right violation to deny a person access to resources as you are basically denying them their right to life[27]. The over-exploitation that is currently taking place due to the large population is resulting in the violation of the fundamental rights of individuals not only of the current generation but also the future generations. At the rate at which our natural resources are being depleted, it is only a matter of time before all the resources are exhausted. The need of the hour is to take affirmative action so as to tackle the problem of urbanization through urban planning and development but at the same time, to ensure that the process of sustenance of resources also takes place. The problem of urbanization is a global issue which shall continue to exist and the failure to act at the earliest to tackle this problem shall have long term implications. The dangers and impacts of urbanization are already prevalent in our society and therefore it is time we take into consideration the fact that this growth of population is a matter of environmental concern. Our Constitution already provides us with provisions which empower the government at all three levels, i.e., central government, state government and local authorities to enforce laws and legislations in order to tackle problems such as urbanization. The government must use these powers to bring in policies that seek to create regional development zones that look to diminish the existing problem of rapid urbanization in certain regions[28]. These regional development zones need to be chosen diligently in such a manner that the allocation and utilization of resources are given to only those regions that require it. The success of such policies shall solely depend upon the efficient use of governmental resources as well as the proper planning with regard to the utilization of natural resources. Each individual who is part of society holds a stake in the same and therefore, each of us are responsible as well as accountable to others in ensuring the efficient use and safeguard of resources. The dangers of urbanization should thus be tackled through group effort so as to provide for the sustainable development of the country.
[1]Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, sustainabledevelopment.un.org (2020), (last visited Feb 10, 2020), https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/.
[2] World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future (The Brundtland Report) (1987).
[3] P. Birnie & A.E. Boyle, Basic Documents on International Law and Environment 9 (1995).
[4]Supra note 1.
[5] Pawan, Urbanization and Its Causes and Effects: A Review, International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) Volume III, Issue IX, 110 (2016).
[6] Neelmani Jaysawal & Sudeshna Saha, Urbanization in India: An Impact Assessment, International Journal of Applied Sociology, 4(2): 60-65 (2014).
[7]T.S. Papola, Employment in Development: Connection between Indian Strategy and ILO Policy Agenda, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 46, No. 10, 62–67 (2011).
[8] Darshini Mahadevia, Sustainable Urban Development in India: An Inclusive Perspective, Development in Practice, Vol. 11, No. 2/3, 242-259 (2001).
[9] Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, India (2011 Census Data).
[10] Allen V Kneese,Population and Resources in Western Intellectual Traditions,Population and Development Review Supplement, Vol. 14, 281-309 (1988).
[11]Id.
[12] Meinhard Schroder, Sustainable Development – A principle for Action and an Instrument to Secure the Conditions for Survival of Future generations, 101 Law and State, Vol 51 (1995).
[13] Usha Tandon, Population Growth and Sustainable Development, Journal of the Indian Law Institute, Vol. 50, No 2, 209-219 (2008).
[14] INDIA CONST. art. 245.
[15] INDIA CONST. art. 246.
[16] INDIA CONST. amended by The Constitution (Seventy Fourth Amendment) Act, 1992.
[17]The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005, Nrega.nic.in, (last visited Feb 10, 2020), https://www.nrega.nic.in/netnrega/mgnrega_new/Nrega_home.aspx.
[18] Puja Dutta et al., Does India’s Employment Guarantee Scheme Guarantee Employment? Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 47, No. 16, 55-64 (2012).
[19] INDIA CONST. amended by The Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act, 1976.
[20]Lefeber, L, Regional Allocation of Resources in India. Ekistics, Vol. 15 No. 86, (January 1963), 44-46, 50 (1963).
[21] Tandon, supra note 13.
[22] Ambrish Kumar, Governance and Sustainable Development, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 72, No. 1, 143-151 (2011).
[23] Anita Kiamba, The Sustainability of Urban Development in Developing Economies: Consilience, No. 8, 20-25 (2012).
[24] G.S. Kleppel, Urbanization and Environmental Quality: Implications of Alternative Development Scenarios, 8 Alb. L. Envtl. Outlook 37 (2002).
[25] Mahadevia, supra note 8.
[26] INDIA CONST. art. 21.
[27] M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, A.I.R. 2004 S.C. 4016, (India); the Supreme Court of India held that the mining operations that were taking place in Aravalli hills impairs the ecology as well as the rights of the people with respect to natural resources. An emphasis was placed on the right to natural resources which was considered under the ambit of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution which provides individuals with the right to life and personal liberty.
[28] Kleppel, supra note 24.
